By Susan Leopold

The Eclectics were drivers of social change, allowing women, Native American, African American, and Jewish students to become Doctors of Medicine. There is a lineage of eclectic doctors that would go on to establish schools of medicine that advocated for women to be doctors and stress the need for female healthcare at a time when women were not allowed to vote and perceived to be too weak in nature to take on the role of being a doctor. The practice and philosophy around medicine and herbal knowledge is often subtle and hidden and yet at the same time also profoundly affects our daily choices in how we navigate our health and wellbeing.

In a time of social unrest during the devastation of the civil war and the rise of the pharmaceutical industry, the Eclectics were drivers of social change along with the Quakers, abolitionists, the suffrage movement, spiritualists, theosophists, transcendentalists, and other pockets of those who questioned injustices and were seekers. The Flexner Report of 1910 was a critical examination of the various medical schools and introduced strict protocols that promoted and encouraged systemic racism and sexism. This report was not kind to the schools of eclectic medicine, homeopathy, and other outliers of “alternative methods” or as they were called then the “irregulars.” One could argue that we are again in a time where it may feel like that the powers that be are causing a societal step back, and yet at the same time there is also a reckoning and re-examination of the current medical system. As the eclectic schools of medicine closed, so did the herbal dispensaries that could be found in almost any country store. There is much to be explored in the interconnection between social unrest and change that is woven into the way society embraces health and wellness. Stepping back in time and unraveling this history reminds us that we did not get to this point without the trials and tribulations of those before us. As herbal medicine began to rise back into popularity in the 1960s, the long-vanished apothecaries reemerged in the form of health food stores and co-ops. Herbal companies we know today started small, and a rediscovery of the eclectic body of knowledge provided a road map for the natural products industry that we know today. Many of the formulas that line the shelves of the natural products aisles find their origins in eclectic formulas that were popular not that long ago.

In my own quest to understand this lost history, the Lloyd Library was a beacon for me and many others who made a pilgrimage to Cincinnati. What I discovered in my own research was that the eclectics were also deeply cultural and ecologically conservation minded and saw the study of nature and ethnobotany as important to the study of medicine. This makes sense because even before the eclectics the study of botany was the study of medicine, and medicine was the study of plants. The Eclectics and those before them bore witness to horrific social injustice in society from the 1600s onward with abuse of the land and its indigenous populations, the forced removal and racism and the cutting down of the old growth forest, the decimation of the buffalo, the plowing up of the prairie leading to the Dust Bowl era. They understood the source of nature’s medicine, and they were voracious seekers of knowledge.

The lingering bias for teaching herbs persists in those institutions funded by federal government, and yet there also lingers a legacy of herbal medicine and knowledge from the eclectics ever so present in the herbal supplement industry and in herbal practice today. One could only imagine if these two schools of thought could have worked together what our medical system might look like today. Sort of similar to how Chinese hospitals integrate acupuncture, or how India integrated Ayurvedic into its medical system.

One could wonder what the discussions were leading up to the closing of many of the eclectic schools. What threads of this history persist as we navigate towards a changing landscape? This year’s International Symposium hopes to bring about fresh reflections on the history of botanical medicine. The idea that United Plant Savers was founded by herbalists, wild harvesters, farmers, and small herbal companies is no surprise, because just as the eclectics were concerned with conservation and socially minded, so too are the plant savers. It is impossible to untangle the health of the planet from human health and well-being, and this very thread of interconnectedness and oneness is what unites herbal healers around the world.

Four books I would recommend that provide context:

• The Doctors Blackwell: How Two Pioneering Sisters Brought Medicine to Women and Women to Medicine by Janice P. Nimura.
• A Warrior of the People: How Susan La Flesche Overcame Racial and Gender Inequality to Become America’s First Indian Doctor by Joe Starita.
• A Profile in Alternative Medicine: The Eclectic Medical College of Cincinnati, 1845–1942 by John S. Haller Jr.
• The People’s Doctors: Samuel Thomson and the American Botanical Movement, 1790–1860 by John S. Haller Jr.

EMI graduated some of the first Black physicians in the United States. John Uri Lloyd, the oldest of the three brothers and a teacher at EMI, wrote a letter to Booker T. Washington in 1900 that apparently mentioned Black alumni of the school. William R. Reynolds of Illinois graduated in the class of 1868. According to John Uri Lloyd, Reynolds was the first Black physician in the US.

The Lloyd Library and Museum, founded by three brothers whose work was associated with Eclectic medicine, contains EMI school’s records and correspondence.

There is much to be contemplated and to inspire from the eclectics as herbalism charts a new path into the future. One such interesting historical character is Rafinesque, who believed in sharing knowledge and making it accessible to everyone, by using affordable printing techniques at a time when herbal books were largely funded by the wealthy patrons who supported the printing of very costly, beautiful, and often oversized books in limited editions. Rafinesque and many of his contemporaries traveled extensively learning from many different cultures, most of which were indigenous and knew the forests intimately. By the late 1700s there had been nearly 300 years of cultural exchange from trade, slavery, and survival. The Ohio valley was the western frontier and thus Cincinnati became a vibrant river town that was once covered in mounds and artifacts to a place of settlement and ideas. Named after the roman general Cincinnatus, the general who relinquished power as dictator to return to his farm, symbolizing virtues of humility and civic duty. The Eclectic Medical College of Cincinnati and the successful company Specific Medicines operated by the Lloyd brothers, and their vision to establish the Lloyd library would cement the history of the eclectics in the queen city.

Constantine Samuel Rafinesque (1783–1840) was a significant figure in the development of eclectic medicine, a movement that emerged in the United States during the 19th century. His innovative contributions to natural history and botany, coupled with his advocacy for a more inclusive approach to medical practice, established him as a pioneer in integrating diverse healing modalities. Rafinesque’s emphasis on selecting effective treatments from various medical traditions, particularly his studies of Native American herbal remedies, laid the groundwork for what would become a vital alternative medical system, distinct from the orthodox practices of his time.

Rafinesque’s influence on eclectic medicine stemmed from his belief that physicians should choose treatments based on their efficacy rather than adhering strictly to established doctrines. This philosophy resonated with the goals of eclectic practitioners who sought to empower themselves and their patients through individualized care. By the mid-19th century, eclectic medicine gained popularity, culminating in the establishment of numerous medical schools dedicated to this approach. However, the movement faced significant challenges, particularly from critiques emerging in the early 20th century, including the Flexner Report, which questioned the scientific rigor of these institutions.

Despite the eventual decline of eclectic medicine, particularly after the closure of the last Eclectic medical school in 1942, Rafinesque’s legacy persists in contemporary discussions surrounding integrative and holistic health practices. His foundational work continues to inspire modern herbalists and alternative medicine advocates who strive to combine traditional knowledge with contemporary healthcare approaches. Nonetheless, Rafinesque’s contributions were not without controversy; his critiques of established medical practices and his unconventional views often led to tensions within the medical community, leaving a complex legacy that straddles innovation and eccentricity.

Constantine Samuel Rafinesque was born on October 22, 1783, in Galata, a suburb of Constantinople, to Francois G.A. Rafinesque and Madeleine (Schmaltz) Rafinesque. His early life was marked by considerable upheaval; shortly after his birth, his family moved to France, and during the French Revolution, he was sent to live with relatives in Tuscany. Rafinesque received his education from private tutors, as the family’s financial circumstances deteriorated following the death of his father in Philadelphia in 1793 due to yellow fever. Despite his aspirations for a university education in Switzerland, these plans were thwarted by the family’s reduced income. This challenging background influenced Rafinesque’s later pursuits in naturalism and philology, eventually shaping his contributions to the fields of eclectic medicine and botany. In the context of medical education, Rafinesque’s experiences were reflective of broader trends in the early 19th century, where many emerging medical practitioners sought to break away from traditional allopathic practices. The period was characterized by the rise of eclectic medical schools that aimed to incorporate diverse therapeutic approaches, including herbalism and non-invasive methods. Rafinesque’s background may have contributed to his later advocacy for a more inclusive medical practice that embraced various healing traditions, further influencing the development of eclectic medicine in the United States and abroad.

Constantine Samuel Rafinesque-Schmaltz was a prominent figure in the field of natural history, making significant contributions to botany and zoology throughout his career. Educated in Europe, Rafinesque developed a keen interest in natural history and traveled extensively, which informed his scientific pursuits. After arriving in the United States, he initially worked as an exporter in Sicily but eventually dedicated himself entirely to the study of natural history by the age of 25. Rafinesque’s formal academic career began when he was appointed as a professor at Transylvania University in Lexington, Kentucky in 1818. There, he established a reputation as a brilliant educator and founded a botanical garden in 1825. His move to Philadelphia in 1826 marked a new phase in his career, where he lectured at the Franklin Institute and continued to engage in extensive field studies. Rafinesque also contributed significantly to American botany by publishing numerous scientific names for a variety of plants and animals, with estimates suggesting he named around 6,700 species in botany alone.

Rafinesque’s contributions extended beyond simple nomenclature; he was one of the early proponents of ideas that would later become central to evolutionary biology. He utilized the term “evolution” in discussions of biological speciation and proposed evolutionary theories prior to Charles Darwin, indicating an understanding of the impermanence of species and the significance of fossils in dating geological strata. His literary output included various publications that reflected his scientific insights, Rafinesque’s prolific output contributed to the foundations of the mound cultures of America, ecological and botanical science in North America. Rafinesque’s legacy is marked by his fervent dedication to natural history and his extensive contributions to the naming and classification of species. His work not only advanced the field of botany, but also laid the groundwork for future ecological studies and the understanding of species evolution. Through his travels, academic appointments, and published works, Rafinesque significantly impacted the scientific community in the United States and beyond, influencing generations of naturalists and ecologists.

Impact on Eclectic Medicine and Contribution to Botanical Medicine

Constantine Samuel Rafinesque-Schmaltz was a pivotal figure in the development of Eclectic medicine in the United States during the 19th century. His contributions significantly influenced both the philosophy and practice of this medical movement, which emphasized the use of botanical remedies and noninvasive therapies. Rafinesque’s extensive work in botany and natural history helped to establish a strong foundation for the integration of plant-based medicines into the Eclectic system, which sought to prioritize treatments that aligned with natural healing principles. Rafinesque was instrumental in the classification and documentation of various plant species, many of which became integral to the Eclectic Materia Medica. His thorough studies of flora provided Eclectic physicians with a rich source of botanical knowledge that was essential for the formulation of remedies that emphasized safety and efficacy. This focus on using substances that had stood the test of experience was a cornerstone of the Eclectic philosophy, aiming to provide alternatives to the more dangerous practices of orthodox medicine at the time, such as bleeding and the use of mercurial compounds. The principles promoted by Rafinesque resonated with the broader goals of the Eclectic movement, which aimed to empower physicians with the freedom to explore various healing modalities without the constraints imposed by dominant medical authorities. His call for an individualized approach to patient care echoed the Eclectic belief that no single method could adequately address all health issues, thus advocating for a diverse range of treatment options that included both botanical and physical therapies. This alignment with natural healing practices positioned Rafinesque as a significant advocate for the rights of alternative practitioners and helped to legitimize Eclectic medicine in an era dominated by traditional medical practices and independence from established medical cliques.

The impacts of eclectic medicine and its associated schools on the use of dietary supplements reflect a significant evolution in American healthcare practices that began in the early 19th century. Eclectic medicine emerged as a reaction against conventional medical practices characterized by invasive and toxic treatments. Instead, it championed a more holistic and patient-centered approach, emphasizing natural, plant-based remedies drawn from Native American traditions and early American herbal medicine. This foundational perspective laid the groundwork for the contemporary dietary supplement industry, which has expanded dramatically, growing from a $4 billion market in the 1990s to over $40 billion by 2022.

The eclectic movement’s legacy is evident in the increasing popularity and acceptance of dietary supplements, as many consumers seek alternatives to pharmaceuticals that they perceive as having fewer side effects. This shift has fostered a culture of self-directed health care, where individuals actively choose supplements to support their wellness. The principles of eclectic medicine—rooted in natural healing and individual empowerment—continue to resonate with modern consumers, as evidenced by studies indicating a significant percentage of the population views dietary supplements as reliable health aids.

However, this growth has not been without controversy. Critics raise concerns about the safety and efficacy of dietary supplements, citing a lack of stringent regulatory oversight that can lead to adverse effects and misleading health claims. Instances of harmful interactions with prescription medications and the potential for unregulated products to reach consumers exacerbate these concerns, prompting calls for reform and enhanced consumer protection in the dietary supplement industry. The idea of the term “snake oil” lingers as a derogatory term for fraudulent or deceptive remedies. As the landscape of dietary supplement use continues to evolve, the historical influences of eclectic medicine provide a critical context for understanding current trends and debates surrounding health practices in the United States.

The Eclectics made substantial contributions to the practice of herbal medicine, which included the formulation of Herbal Remedies. The Eclectics were pioneers in standardizing herbal formulations into various forms like syrups, tinctures, and extracts, enhancing the ease of prescription and administration of treatments. In addition the establishment of Eclectic Medical Colleges provided formal training in botanical medicine, thus legitimizing herbal therapies within a structured educational framework.

As the medical landscape evolved, the Eclectic movement began to wane in the mid-20th century. By the 1950s, many Eclectic schools closed, giving way to Naturopathy, which incorporated many principles of Eclecticism while expanding to include other alternative therapies. Despite this transition, the influence of the Eclectics is still evident today in contemporary practices of integrative and functional medicine, which seek to combine traditional herbal methods with modern medical approaches, emphasizing individualized treatment based on the root causes of health issues.

The legacy of eclectic medicine can be observed in the contemporary surge in dietary supplement use in the United States. This growth is partly attributed to the positive perception of dietary supplements; studies indicate that a significant percentage of the population views the supplement industry as trustworthy, which aligns with the Eclectic ethos of self-directed health care and holistic treatment options. The Eclectics’ emphasis on the natural origins of remedies has shaped consumer behavior towards dietary supplements. Many individuals today are motivated by a desire to take control of their health, often opting for supplements perceived as having fewer side effects compared to pharmaceuticals. Research indicates that a substantial proportion of the population believes that dietary supplements can provide benefits comparable to those of conventional medications. This belief is bolstered by effective marketing strategies that promote supplements for various health claims, including immune support and weight management.

The rise of the eclectic medicine movement in the United States during the early nineteenth century significantly influenced public perceptions of health and treatment modalities. The popular health movement arose partly in reaction to a growing skepticism toward conventional medical practices, which were often seen as brutal and ineffective. Practices such as bloodletting and the use of toxic substances like calomel (mercurous chloride) contributed to a general distrust of physicians and their expertise, leading many to seek alternatives, including herbal remedies and natural healing methods. The perception of dietary supplements has evolved alongside these historical developments. Despite widespread skepticism regarding traditional medical practices, a significant portion of the American public now views dietary supplements as trustworthy options for enhancing health. This popularity can be attributed in part to effective marketing strategies that emphasize the allure of personal health empowerment and the appeal of natural products.

Where Do We Go From Here?

There is wonderful opportunity to re-discover the eclectic body of knowledge this September 12-14, 2025 in Cincinnati, OH. The overlay of ethnobotany in herbalism is deeply layered in our connection between people and plants. The focus of the International Herb Symposium is to bring together diverse modalities from different cultures with classes on how to use herbal medicine to empower health. This is an opportunity for the herbal community to gather together, exchange knowledge, and celebrate the Eclectics!